Mergers, acquisitions and strategic alliance Essay

Mergers, acquisitions and vital coalition - Essay Example Notwithstanding, industry and firm explicit factors at long last administer the explanation and the reason for the mergers and acquisitions and partnerships occurring in the worldwide commercial center. While much has been concentrated on the reasons of accomplishment and disappointments of M&A, the key explanations for the mergers, acquisitions and coalitions are being taken a gander at in this paper. This paper won't center around the post-merger achievement or disappointment yet focus on the vital reasons that brief firms to go into M&A and collusions. Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) has been portrayed as ‘among the most significant vital choices organizations ever make’ (refered to by Duncan and Mtar, 2006). Acquisitions can be founded on vital choices like market extension, item broadening or area development. Therefore many use it as a method of passage into a remote market where it is hard to begin a completely possessed endeavor. Henceforth the choice of M&A relies on the asset based view or the exchange cost examination. Organization hypothesis has likewise been clarified as a M&A system. The office hypothesis battles that director controlled mechanical firms seek after aggregate broadening. Administrators profit by the expansion in firm size and dependent on the conviction that huge firms will only here and there come up short and the official remuneration is connected to the firm size (Lin, Hung and Li, 2006). The asset based view proposes that while firms have substantial and impalpable assets, the assets don't make esteem except if they associate with different assets. In the event that complimentary assets are not under the proprietorship control, the organizations experience issues in understanding the maximum capacity of the assets. This turns into a motivation to converge with different firms that have reciprocal assets. M&A procedure can give outer wellsprings of inventive skills to secure the center business. As a similar time,

Odysseus Rex Essay Example

Odysseus Rex Essay The major point of convergence of this cataclysm is on the character of the saint. Oedipus. He is a person vital ; actually. the security and health of the network rely on him. What's more, he needs to run into a squeezing emergency. something which compromises the go oning being of the city. Furthermore, in light of the fact that he is extremely witting of his ain characteristics. he takes upon himself that obligation. Oedipus. above everything else from the outset. is a person who acts unflinchingly and who is praised for so making. In that sense. Oedipus resembles Odysseus. who is other than celebrated for his capacity to move and react in an exigency. What is the greater part of import about them. by and by. rises non from their underlying conclusions to move yet rather from what occurs as the battle they are trapped in gets progressively entangled. Oedipus has a chivalrous confirmation in his ain capacities. also, he has great ground for such affirmation. both from his feeling of past achievements and from the truly elevated regard everybody has of these achievements. As his situation gets increasingly convoluted and things accomplish non turn out to be as he has envisioned they may. in contrast to Odysseus. he does non suit. change. or on the other hand learn. He turns out to be increasingly more resolved to oversee the activity on his ain footings ; he turns out to be continuously firm. Having acknowledged the obligation for rescuing Thebes. he will on his ain oversee the issue. without by means of media. without lies. without daze. We will compose a custom paper test on Odysseus Rex explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom exposition test on Odysseus Rex explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom exposition test on Odysseus Rex explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer Oedipus requests from life that it answers to him. to his vision of what it must be. All through the show he is trying to authorize his will upon occasions. People groups around him are consistently squeezing mindfulness. judiciousness. indeed, even a spurning of his journey. yet, to proceed onward such guidance would be for Oedipus a disavowal of what he is. What's more, as he over and over states. he would rather suffer anything than bargain his feeling of what his identity is and how he should carry on himself. Odysseus is somewhat discernable. He sees everything and is ever arranged to recognize that he has been mistakenly. He can suit ; that is a most alluring aspect regarding the account. The peruser may cognize the outcome. what holds him is the standpoint of some new exposure about Odysseus’ pack of quick ones. What will he make close to procure out of this sketchy situation? What is he making to beat the suers? Since he is such an interminably changeable character. the peruser realizes he is heading out to identify something new about Odysseus in each scene. The reader’s feeling of Oedipus is extremely extraordinary. He is non venturing out to be any unique. he is making a trip to continue being definitely what he has been. So there is a terrible captivation with seeing the situations develop. in observing Oedipus himself become the major impelling power in his ain annihilation. The power of the dramatization originates from the association between Oedipus’s miseries and his ain activities. that is. from the cognizance of how he himself is passing on upon his ain caput the terrible outcome. Oedipus is damned. predominantly on the grounds that he is the sort of individual he is. Individual else. individual with an extremely unique character. would non hold endured Oedipus’s life.

UGA Admissions Amazing Race - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

UGA Admissions Amazing Race - UGA Undergraduate Admissions UGA Admissions Amazing Race Yesterday, the majority of the Admissions staff participated in a 4 hour campus adventure we called The UGA Admissions Amazing Race, modeled after the TV show The Amazing Race. Four of us (me included) mapped out eight locations around the campus that were important to Admissions, either because of the offices located there (Visitors Center, Brumby Residence Hall, GA Center/Hotel, Tate Center and parking deck), or because of a unique item within the building (Peabody Awards in Journalism, Dinosaur Sloth bones in Boyd Hall, Green roof at the new Lamar Dodd Art building, Alumni House bulldog). There were seven teams, and they were given progressive clues to the various places on campus, and many times were asked to perform a task. Whether calling the dawgs at the VC or posing with the sloth bones, the teams raced across campus and learn more about UGA and each other. Along the way, we also wanted to teach our Admissions team about how we communicate, and if the information we give out seems like mysterious clues that sometimes leave prospective students confused or lost (like one Amazing Race team that took photos of 4 roofs before finding the environmentally green roof at Dodd). There were a number of puzzled faces, a few But you didnt tell me I couldnt do that phrases, and some tired admissions people by the end of the day, but overall it was a great success! So hopefully when you consider applying to UGA, our office will give you clear and accurate information, and I am guessing that we will be looking at how we communicate so as to give prospective students the best service possible. Go Dawgs!

The Effects Of Divorce On The United States Essay

Families of Divorce Many families in the United States have or know someone who has been through a divorce. The reason for this is because divorce has almost become a normal occurrence in our society. According to the textbook Marriages and Families, Diversity and Change Seventh Edition â€Å"1 million married couples in the United States divorce each year.† (M. Schwartz, B. Scott, 2012, p. 390) In early America divorce was almost non-existent, that is not the case in our recent day and age. Unfortunately, in today’s society there are many factors that have contributed destroying marriages, one example being social media. Sadly, the couple divorcing aren’t the only ones affected by divorce. â€Å"A recent student of 13 European countries, Canada, and the United States found that the divorce risk of children of divorced parents is on average about twice that of children of non-divorced parents.† (Hong, Galher, and Bernhardt. 2006) Even though divorce rates have continuously be en rising we do have many resources available to help save marriages instead of just giving up on the entire sanctity that marriage is supposed to represent. Rates and Information on Divorce in the United States There has been a steady rise in the divorce rate over the past sixty years, which has consistently provided a continuing example of what divorce comprises of. Divorce has been a part of U.S. history since 1639. (M. Schwartz, B. Scott, 2012, p. 390) Regardless of the fact, that does not mean it wasShow MoreRelatedEffects Of Divorce On The United States1272 Words   |  6 PagesThe Effects of Divorce on Children Divorce is comparable to an epidemic since it has been filtering through many societies at an increasingly alarming rate. According to the most current statistic, there are more than 2.1 million marriages in the United States (â€Å"Children of Divorced Parents†). Out of those, almost half end in divorce. Divorce nowadays is extremely common. In fact, in America there is one divorce every thirty-six seconds (National Marriage and Divorce Rate Trends†). Each year overRead MoreEffects Of Divorce On The United States1041 Words   |  5 PagesThe topic of divorce, for many decades, has been a topic that fell into the domain of taboo. In more recent years, society within the united states has brought the topic into the limelight by desensitizing the term. Thus, the divorce rates in the US have went up. However, a divorce has both positive and negative implications. Also, there have been backlashes against divorce, but there has also been a positive feedback system employed t o aid in the process that surround divorce. The partitioning betweenRead MoreThe Effects Of Gray Divorce On The United States1001 Words   |  5 Pages The United States rates higher divorce than other countries, moreover there is a growing trend of gray divorce in the United States. Gray divorce is a term used for the divorces of ages fifty years and older. The consequences can be on a different scale than that of being many. years younger. Much of the time, for the women it involves hardships on many fronts. This is especially true for the gray divorced women, who are suffering more economically in our society today (Science Dailey,2015). MostRead MoreDivorce Law And Its Effect On The United States2969 Words   |  12 Pagesinstitution for life’, however the statistics show that there is an increasing trend in the divorce law. There has been a long history of reforming the law to its current stage. Until 1857 the only way of obtaining a divorce was through an Act of Parliament, however due to its expense, it was reserved for the wealthiest. The Matrimonial Cause Act 1857 for the first time created a possibility to divorce on the ground of adultery, which was gender-biased because wife had to prove aggravating circumstancesRead MoreEssay on The Negative Effects of Divorce Rates in United States1240 Words   |  5 Pagespeople to divorce and this result affects the children. ​In the U.S., is it common that we see many married people end their relationship with a divorce and most of them are young people. The divorce rates still at a high rate that in the Unites States statistics show, one out of two marriages end in divorce. The current divorce rate may be decreasing however at the same time many people are not getting married so therefore the divorce rates remains low. When people get married and divorce so easilyRead MoreThe Effects Of Divorce On Our Society1034 Words   |  5 PagesThe United States is a country that takes pride in the fact that no matter what religion, race or sex you are you can join together in the unity of marriage. Many people dream of growing up and marrying the love of their life and having a family, but they do not take into consideration there are 2.3 million marriages a year, with over 1.2 million divorces (â€Å"The Impact of Divorce on Our Society†). Divorce is not limited to breaking apart the husband and wife; it destroys families, siblings and theRead MoreDivorce Rate Of The United States1021 Words   |  5 PagesDivorce Rate As human civilization advances, the more tolerant society has become to behaviors that used to be regarded as appalling and immoral. One of these behaviors is becoming divorced. According to a recent guidebook for couples who are in the midst of a divorce or considering divorce, 70% of Americans believe that divorce is a morally acceptable choice (Hawkins, 2009). This new understanding of divorce has played a significant role in the choice that many Americans have made to separate fromRead MoreAdults and Divorce Essay1163 Words   |  5 Pagesmarriage by filing for divorce in the judicial courts. It is shocking to learn that out of a population of 1,000 people, there are 6.4 marriages and 3.4 divorces, which means that 50% of marriages in the United States of America result into a divorce (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). There are various causes that make the spouses take the ultimate decision of ending their matrimonial vows through legal divorce. The rate of di vorce also differs from one state to another and also variesRead MoreEssay about The Effects of Divorce in American Culture1719 Words   |  7 PagesThe effects of divorce on the American culture are immense. Social scientists have been studying these effects for many years now. The studies are continuing to confirm that the climbing rate of divorce in the American culture is hurting the society and also frequently devastating the lives of many American children. More often than not people decide to get a divorce before they really think about the effects of divorce. People usually decide to get a divorce based on emotion rather than logic whichRead MoreCognitive Effects Of Parental Divorce On Children And Young Adults1722 Words   |  7 Pages Cognitive Effects of Parental Divorce on Children and Young Adults Catherine B Ricketts Southern Union State Community College â€Æ' Abstract Many countries have conducted research studies concerning how separation and divorce affects children and young adults in cognitive development. It is mutually agreed that over all, children and young adults are recommended to have both parents present while raising the younger generation. This reinforces certain rules and regulations to stay with the child

Regulatory Agency Paper - 1549 Words

Regulatory Agency Paper Annamarie Jenkins April 2, 2012 HCS/430 Federal Drug and Food Administration â€Å"The Federal Drug Administration is an agency within the Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA organization consist of the Office of Commissioner and four directorates overseeing four core functions of the agency: Medical Products, and Tobacco, Foods, Global Regulatory Operations, and Policy, and Operations† (FDA, 2011). The FDA†¦show more content†¦This agency consist of nine centers and office, each department has a Deputy Commissioner who has to report to the Commissioner of the FDA. Within each of these departments have directors and assistant commissioners who report to the deputy commissioners. These departments have their particular job to keep his or her superior informed of any possible dangers with food or drugs including cosmetics. The FDA is duty bound to follow regulations and laws to ensure the safety of consumers by communicating them to the Commissioner and then to the Department of Health and Human Services. Day-to-Day Operations The responsibilities of the Federal Drug and Food Administration is to ensure the safety of food, drugs, and cosmetics. The day-to-day operations of the FDA occur within the Office of Operations. This office provides the leadership for operational activities, interaction, and execution of programs initiated by the commissioner. The Officer of Operations (OO) had the authority to delegate direction, regulating documentation, ethical, and conflict of interest matters. The OO provides advises to the Commissioner on various management and business activities of the agency. Plans, directs, and coordinates financial programs and furnishes financial reports regarding the status of these programs. This office oversees the establishment and implementation of programs and policies, ensure that theyShow MoreRelatedRegulatory Agency Paper 4301485 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Regulatory Agency Paper HCS/430 April 20, 2015, 2015 Katrina Sullivan Regulatory Agency Paper Option 1: Health Care Segment When people think of health care, they often think up images from their own experiences in doctors offices, clinics, and hospitals. Then there are the images of intense drama and hustling and bustling in hospitals and emergency rooms such as those presentedRead MoreRegulatory Agencies Paper958 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿ Regulatory Agencies Paper HCS/437 August 18, 2014 Joyce Wooten Instructor / Nicolas Gross Regulatory Agencies Paper The concept of regulatory agencies has many boundaries and their responsibility is to license long-term care facilities to ensure compliance of laws and regulations. It is stated that in the United States the long-term care (LTC) marketplace is normally recognized as one of the most strongly regulated sectors in the economy, although thereRead MoreHealth Care Regulatory Agencies Paper889 Words   |  4 PagesIssues in Healthcare University of Phoenix Health care regulatory agencies supervise professional of the health care profession such as physicians, hospitals, and labs. Providing information in regards to changes in health care along with ensuring the safety and legal compliance and the quality of services provided to the public is the duty assigned to the agency. These agencies can range from the federal, all the way to the local level with the task of establishingRead MoreRegulatory Agency Briefing Paper : The Joint Commission Essay1437 Words   |  6 Pages Regulatory Agency Briefing Paper: The Joint Commission Ragini Kaur California State University, Northridge Seminar in Health Care Organization Andrew Oppenberg April 27, 2015 Abstract Accreditation provides a competitive advantage in the health care industry and strengthens community confidence in safety of care and treatment. Accredited hospitals provide higher quality of care to patients. It improves risk management and risk reduction and helps in organizing and strengthens patientRead MoreThe Role Of Regulatory Agencies And The Government Structure1893 Words   |  8 Pages Table of contents I. Introduction II. Creation of government structure III. Role of regulatory agencies IV. Role of SEC in determining the behavior of the firm and its management V. Concept of TBTF to the financial corporations and non-financial corporations VI. Ethical issues raised by too big to fail VII. Conclusion Introduction There are various government structures in organizations although they are different from one branch of the government to the other. The structures helpRead MoreE Publishing : Making A Location Within The Modular Structure1181 Words   |  5 Pagesnothing but the final compilation of regulatory documents in electronic submission format. This typically includes: †¢ Assignment of documents to a location within the modular structure †¢ PDF rendering of final, hyperlinked documents †¢ Customization of document headers/footers †¢ Assigning titles and grouping study-related files †¢ Setup of submission-specific values (e.g., application and sequence number) From history to present: Trends†¦. Trends in regulatory publishing can actually be understoodRead MoreRegulatory Information And Managing Component Level Information Essay1560 Words   |  7 PagesRegulatory information includes publishing and managing component level information within dossier spanning all formats like electronic Common Technical Document (eCTD), Non-eCTD electronic Submissions (NeeS) and paper etc., across diverse pharmaceutical markets. It also includes archival of data / documents with appropriate modification history for audit purposes. Tracking of global submission status with different health authorities and managing modification in those documents in close co-ordinationRead MoreRegulatory Agencies1092 Words   |  5 PagesRegulatory Agencies HCS437 June 2, 2014 Regulatory Agencies Several regulatory agencies are responsible for licensing long-term care facilities to ensure compliance of laws and regulations. Regulatory agencies also receive and investigate complaints that are related to the facility and the services in which the facility provides (Walsh, 2014). All long-term care facilities are expected to abide by these regulations in an effort to ensure long-term care patients proper care, ethical treatmentRead MoreHealth Law and Regulations Paper1416 Words   |  6 PagesHealth Law and Regulations Paper Diane Wilson University of Phoenix Rhonda Dempsey Health Law and Regulations Paper Federal regulatory agencies have been created over the life of the United States to deal with specific issues that affect citizens of all states or industries that engage in business across state boundaries. Federal regulatory agencies generate and enforce rules (eHow Money). The law dictates their work. Regulatory agencies enforce federal laws and generate rules. These rulesRead MoreThe State Board Of Nursing : Nursing Theories, And Historical Figures That Have Impacted The Nursing Profession1745 Words   |  7 PagesIn this paper we will explore many different things that effect and have contributed to the profession of nursing including but not limited to different agencies, nursing theories, and historical figures that have impacted the nursing profession. Discussion Within most professional careers one will find different organizations and agencies. However, each of these serves a different purpose to their respected profession. Regulatory agencies are not membership based and the primary function is to

The Issue of Lowering of Legal Drinking Age Free Essays

Cody Schisnewski Final Draft 09/29/09 Period 1 A number of States in the U. S. are considering legislation to lower the legal drinking age from the current age of 21 to 18. We will write a custom essay sample on The Issue of Lowering of Legal Drinking Age or any similar topic only for you Order Now The move would defy a generation of federal law and public opinion in America which is strongly opposed to lowering the drinking age. In 1984, congress set the legal drinking age to 21 from 18, threatening to cut highway funding to states which did not comply, mostly to cut down on drunk driving deaths caused each year by drinking and driving. But advocates argue teenagers are going to drink anyway even if changed. Should the drinking age be lowered? In my opinion, the drinking age doesn’t need to be reduced to 18, the drinking laws need to be changed completely. I think there should be a public drinking age of 18, and a private or supervised drinking age of 12. This way, children (young adults) can be taught how to drink socially and responsibly from a young age, so alcohol isn’t such a mystery and there would be less attraction or desire to being able to drink when they turn 21 with there friends. Children need to be taught how to drink responsibly by there parents, and not by some irresponsible friends. And most parents wouldn’t have to worry about criminal charges or D. U. I. ’s because they chose to teach there children about drinking responsibly when they where younger. I have two very different opinions from two different people. Joel who is pro Age 21, from the Mothers Against Drunk Driving or MADD states â€Å"Back in the late 1960s and early 70s a number of states lowered their drinking age from 21 to 18. In many of these states, research documented a significant increase in highway deaths of the teens affected by these laws. After the law changed back to 21, many of the states were `monitored to check the difference in highway fatalities. Researchers found that teenage deaths in fatal car crashes dropped considerably in some cases up to 28% when the laws were moved back to 21. † (redblueamerica. com) Another person, Ben who is pro Age 18, from Radley Balkdo/Reason Group, has his own opinion, stating â€Å"It makes little sense that America considers an 18-year-old mature enough to marry, to sign a contract, to vote and to fight and die for his country, but not mature enough to decide whether or not to ave a beer. People that are for the drinking age of 21 primary argument is the dramatic drop in the number of alcohol-related traffic fatalities since the minimum age first passed Congress in 1984. † (redblueamerica. com) In conclusion, drinking, no matter what age, needs to be treated responsibly. To keep you and the life’s of others out of harms way. And never to drive while under the influence which can lead to serious property damage, other or self injury or in some cases even death. And like I said in the beginning, why don’t we look more into just changing are drinking laws to something completely different, if anything schools should start classes teaching students the danger of underage drinking and driving. This is a very complex argument and both side state very strong opinion and facts, who knows which one is right and which one is wrong, but what I do know is deaths cause by irresponsible drinking is very wrong and we should put all of are minds together to try and stop it from happening. How to cite The Issue of Lowering of Legal Drinking Age, Essay examples

Minimum Wage and Inflation free essay sample

An argument in favor of increasing minimum wages in greater increments in order to avoid the decline of living standards from inflation. The paper presents an argument for raising minimum wage increases in higher increments so that inflation does not erode living standards. The paper gives a background and history of the minimum wage explaining the original objective of the minimum wage compared to its current objective. A graph is provided showing the increase in minimum wage since its inception. Arguments are given for and against minimum wage laws. The paper also compares minimum wages in the United States with those in Canada showing how the law affects women and workers in the two countries. The paper discusses whether the minimum wage is appropriate for the future economy. Minimum wage is the lowest hourly salary that an employer is allowed to pay an employee for services rendered. The Federal Labor board sets the minimum hourly labor rates. We will write a custom essay sample on Minimum Wage and Inflation or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The lowest hourly rates are decided by a *collective bargaining, an arbitration and a board action legislation. Minimum wage laws were passed to ensure that employees are reasonably compensated.

The Worlds Political System Governed By International Organizations †Economics Essay

The Worlds Political System Governed By International Organizations – Economics Essay Free Online Research Papers The Worlds Political System Governed By International Organizations Economics Essay Globalization has lead to an ever-increasing interconnectedness between places and people, the extent of which is often not fully realized. The world political system is now governed based on interdependencies between international government organizations, such as the IMF, and increasing flows of capital (Dicken, 2003). In Argentina, the implementations of international financial policies of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) were believed to ignite the growth and recovery of the economy. However, these policies have had an adverse effect on Argentina’s economy as well as negatives social implications. It is important to look at the history of the IMF and the natural of its loans and policies to understand the economic and social impacts of these policies in Argentina. THE IMF History The IMF was one of the institutions borne out of the Bretton Woods conference in 1944. Originally it was intended to define a new international monetary system, designed to promote international cooperation and an organized exchange rate system while also providing short-term financial assistance to countries so that temporary balance of payment needs could be meet (Isard, 2005). The present day IMF has distanced its self from its original form; â€Å"founded on the belief that markets often worked badly, it now champions market supremacy with ideological fervour† (Stiglitz, 2001, p.12). It was founded on the belief that global collective action was needed to achieve economic stability. It is a public institution financed by taxpayers worldwide, even though â€Å"it does not report directly to either the citizens who finance it or those whose lives it affects†¦it reports to the ministries of finance and the central banks of the governments of the world† (Stiglitz, 2001, p.12). Control is exerted through a voting arrangement mostly based on the economic power of countries at the end of World War II, with most power in the hands of developed counties and with only the United States having veto power (Isard, 2005; Stiglitz, 2001). Initially, it was believed that international pressure was needed for countries to implement expansionary policies, such as increasing spending while reducing taxes, or stimulating the economy through lowered interest rates. It now provides funds to countries only if they engage in policies such as reducing deficits, raising taxes, privatizing public enterprises, devaluing their currency, and raising interest rates. The originally, the IMF was to focus on crises, but because of the continual need for help in the developed world, it was continually involved in the developing world, whether or not they were experiencing a crisis. Although it was supposed to focus on macroeconomic matters when dealing with countries, it saw almost everything falling within the boundaries of its domain, since it was argued that any structural issues had an impact on the economy (Isard, 2005; Stiglitz, 2001). Policies According to the IMF’s Article 1 of Articles of Agreement, its purpose is to: To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution, providing the machinery for consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems. To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, thereby contributing to the promotion and maintenance of high levels of employment and real income and to the development of the productive resources of all members as primary objectives of economic policy. To promote exchange stability, to maintain orderly exchange arrangements among members, and to avoid competitive exchange depreciation. To assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments in respect of current transactions between members and in the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions that hamper the growth of world trade. To give confidence to members by making the general resources of the Fund temporarily available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. In accordance with the above, to shorten the duration and lessen the degree of disequilibrium in the international balances of payments of members. (International Monetary Fund, 2004) Member countries are expected to direct their policies towards achieving orderly economic growth with reasonable price stability; and seek the promotion of stability by encouraging orderly economic and financial conditions (Isard, 2005). The IMF fulfills its purposes are through activities such as:implementing surveillance over members’ economic and financial policies and developments, providing financial assistance (subject to conditions) and technical assistance and training in areas in which the IMF has expertise, performing research and policy analysis to advance economics understand of the national economies and international monetary system, and finally, Offering a forum for an ongoing dialogue of issues relating to the functioning of the world economy and international monetary system (International Monetary Fund, 2004; Isard, 2005). Member countries must undergo a significant amount of surveillance from the IMF, the measure through which the IMF supervises the economic and financial policies and functioning of its members, to ensure the successful operation of the international monetary system (Isard, 2005). Member countries must provide adequate information for effective surveillance, in addition to agreeing with to â€Å"direct policies toward the goals of orderly economic growth with reasonable price stability, together with orderly underlying economic and financial conditions, and to avoid manipulating exchange rates for unfair competitive advantage† (International Monetary Fund, 2004). Surveillance provides the monitoring of economies as well as the provision of policy advice, which can help to identify potential problems and allows action to be taken to prevent these problems (International Monetary Fund, 2004; Isard, 2005). Surveillance occurs on three levels, country, regional, and global. Country surveillance involves consultation regarding the country’s economic policies, assesses the reliability of the financial system, and other issues which may effect is macroeconomic policies and performance. A summary of the findings is then submitted to the executive board that then makes recommendation to the government (International Monetary Fund, 2004; Isard 2005). At best, Isard (2005) believes that: The quality of the IMF’s analysis and policy advice is limited by the accumulated knowledge and best judgements of the economics profession†¦ it is handicapped by the fact that economists have not yet discovered â€Å"the magic formula that assures rapid and steady economic growth, low inflation, financial stability, and social progress†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦in some cases the Fund’s advice is bound to be bad simply because economists’ collective knowledge and judgements are limited. (p. 76) There are several concerns about the effectiveness of surveillance and the IMF’s analysis that have lead to an expansion of guidelines to include those for sustainable economic growth. These include the need to strengthen national financial systems and the ability to monitor financial and economic developments in a more efficient manner, a review of policy measure countries in crises are pushed to undertake as a condition of financial support. Moreover, and perhaps most importantly, that regardless of their policies, countries face the threat of being overwhelmed by the volume and mobility of international capital (Brenner, 2004; Isard, 2005; Peck Tickell, 1994). Another significant role of the IMF is to provide financial assistance to member countries to lessen the impacts of balance of payments on both national and international prosperity. A prerequisite to borrowing from the fund is the negotiation of a program of policies that provides assurance that the country will be able to repay the loan within a distinct period, done on the basis that the loan is temporary and must be subject to safe guards (Isard, 2005). The program typically includes policies set as prior conditions for assistance. The loan is then paid to the country in instalments, on the basis that the next instalment will be received so long as policies are complied with, determined by targets included in the program and sometimes in addition with structural benchmarks. Some of the policies required to be implemented include: Support an appropriate economic environment, but achieving high rates of sustainable growth depends primarily on private sector activities. Market-oriented economic systems with high levels of competition are generally more efficient in allocating resources to meet consumer needs and to support worthwhile investment and growth, Openness to international trade and investment and to transfers of information and technology is vital for economic progress, Exchange rates should broadly reflect international competitiveness, Policies resulting rapid inflation are generally injurious to economic performance, To maintain reasonable price stability and to counteract unwarranted fluctuations in output and employment, monetary policies typically need to respond to (and to anticipate) cyclical developments, The public sector has an essential role in fairly enforcing the rules of a competitive market system, in providing appropriate assistance to the vulnerable in society, in supporting investment in some key areas such as education and health and some components of infrastructure, and in countervailing identifiable and significant m arket failures, Public expenditure needs to be adequately financed by equitable and enforceable taxes with broad bases and with the lowest feasible tax rates, Fiscal deficits often have a desirable cyclical component reflecting the â€Å"automatic stabilizers†; buy public sector deficits and debt should be kept within reasonable limits lest they unduly mortgage futures generations or contribute to economic and financial instability. (Isard, 2005, p.77) SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF IMF IMPOSED POLICIES IN ARGENTINA The principles behind IMF policies tend to reflect the preferences of multinational corporations by promoting investment and freeing the movement of capital into and out of countries. IMF pushed capital market liberalization, despite the fact there was no indication that the policies would be effective in stimulating growth, believing that the issues of competition and regulation that accompany rapid privatization can be dealt with later on (Stiglitz, 2001). This attitude is largely one of the contributing factors to the dismal state of the Argentinean economy. IMF imposed policies contributed to Argentina’s increased sensitivity to changes in world economic conditions, increasing macroeconomic volatility. The restructuring of the economy that occurred because of these polices lead to the loss of locally owned firms, states enterprises, and jobs, leading to unstable development patterns (Brenner, 2004; Lee, 2003). It was believed that implementing these policies would lead to the efficient allocation of resources (Schvarzer, 1998), which it did not. Opening of the global economy lead to increasing flows of capital; it is believed that countries must create conditions to attract foreign investment (Peck Tickell, 1994), conditions which were created by IMF implemented policies. Isard (2005) believes: The acceleration of capital flows into developing countries†¦ which raised their vulnerability to capital flow reversals was closely associated with rapid financial liberalization by emerging market countries;†¦the degree to which †¦ countries became vulnerable, and the virulence of the crisis episodes when they occurred, has been largely attributed to the weaknesses of financial institutions and prudential frameworks in the crisis-stricken countries.† (p. 108) Strengthening of financial institutions and prudential frameworks and addressing macroeconomic imbalances before liberalization financial markets is widely agreed upon to be vital, and is something the IMF ignored in the case of Argentina. The urban landscape is shaped by the investment of private capital with the purpose of generating wealth, particularly with financial and real estate capital. This has resulted in an unevenly distributed urban space, creating different zones of heterogeneity and inequality of standards of living divided along social class lines (Lombardo, DiVirgilio, Ferndez, 2005). The emergence of a ‘new’ liberalized and deregulated economy spurred a wave of new foreign investments, generated a reproduction of capital and social structures, which determined the nature of the labour market, consumer habits, government spending, living conditions, and the framework for economic growth. This new framework lead to the reorganization firms, the distribution of buildings and infrastructure, the relocation of people and sources of employment, and provided circuits allowing for increased profits and the subsequent socio-spatial segregation occurring in Argentina (Lombardo et al 2005). Neo-lib eral ideology incites competition for capital development and revenue comes along with such investments (Brenner, 2004; Lombardo et al, 2005). Deregulation and privatization brought many changes to Argentina. The maintenance and operation of a large portion of national highways and access routes to cities were privatized, including those through the Buenos Aires Metropolitan area (BAMA), which meant increased investment in the improvement and maintenance of its roads. Along with improved roads came increased private automobile use, increasing 58% between 1970 and 1992, as well as increased cell phone usage – indicators of a growing upper class and a sign of increasing social polarization that comes with neo-liberal ideology (Brenner, 2004). There was also an increase in the number of private, gated communities and neighbourhoods and country club style development on the outskirts of BAMA, indicating a significant increase in the upper class in the area. Improved highways have lead to a new boom of urban expansion, allowing new sub-developments of the upper class to be connected to the economic and political centre in Buenos Aires. However, the increase in the development of housing, those who are most in need of improved housing conditions, do not have access to it, a problem exacerbated by income concentration in upper level and high rates of poverty and employment in the informal sector (Inter-American Development Bank, 2005). Although home ownership is relatively high among low-income families, however the housing often does not meet minimum standards of quality, with many located in self-built neighbourhoods, lacking basic services (Inter-American Development Bank, 2005). The problem of access to new housing lies in the fact that unemployment in Buenos Aires, as of May 2001, was approximately 23% (Lombardo et al, 2005). In order to qualify for a loan a minimum monthly income of between $1000 and $1800 is required (with the mortgage payments taking between 35 and 40% of that) as well proven job security (Lombardo et al, 2005). Liberalization of markets has so far not brought stability. Integration into the global economy is successful when foreign traders and investors have confidence in the local economy (Gilbert, 2004), when problems arise in another area, it causes questioning of investments in current areas, causing major problems as capital is pulled out due to these fears, which in actually make these fears realized, whether or not the were founded. Capital flight leads to unstable patterns of development (Brenner, 2004). Argentina saw unemployment increase – rapid privatization meant that the proper structures were not in place to protect the economy and labour force in the event of capital flight. Emphasis on the development on local and regional business was ignored, while foreign investment was encouraged. Privatization was encouraged by the IMF, with the assumption that the private sector would take over from the public sector. This did not happen fast enough, and when the private sector eventually did take over, it proved inefficient, and eventually firms were shut down (Stiglitz, 2001). Markets do not always arise to meet needs; â€Å"government activities have arise because markets have failed to provide essential services†. Privatization of these services leads to negative social implications, such as unemployment and increased poverty, which may then lead to increased violence, crime, and social and political unrest. Families experienced great financial restraints; the remaining employed family members experience greater burdens, children may be forced to withdraw from school to help support their family, debt may amount, as families will have to decide between paying bills or providing food and shelter. Domestic firms may be more socially conscious and be reluctant to fire workers dependent on the economic situation, while foreign firms have an obligation to their shareholders, and will do what is necessary to reduce costs and maximize profits (Stiglitz, 2001). In the past, unemployed workers were often absorbed by the informal sector, but with the rapid capital flight in Argentina in the 1990’s, the sector was not able to absorb the surplus labour, leading to the increases in unemployment. Formal firms are also experience less job security as they are more prone to layoffs and with subcontracting to informal firms becoming increasingly common, have lead to further increases in unemployment, and increasing rates of poverty (Gilbert, 2004). Growing inequality in Argentina can also attributed to the increasing wage gap. Between 1992 and 1998, real hourly wages did not significantly changed with those with a high school degree or less, while those with a post secondary degree saw their hourly wages significantly increase (Bebczuk Gasparini, 2001). A number of IMF labour reforms may have also contributed to the widening income gap. An agreement with labour union in 1997, at the IMF’s suggestion, included reduced severance payments, the gradual elimination of collective bargaining agreements, as well as discouraging temporary labour contracts – policies that did not help reduce unemployment (Takagi, 2004). It is typical in Latin American countries that half the country’s income is concentrated in the wealthiest 10 percent of the population (Inter-American Development Bank, 2005). Poverty, after declining significantly between 1990 and 1991, has been steadily increasing since. As of 2004, 55% of the Arg entinean population was below the national poverty line (World Bank, 2004). CONCLUSION Global forces and international governance play a direct role in daily life (Swyngedouw, 1992). The crisis in Argentina is a â€Å"direct example†¦of the damaging formative intersection of local, national, and global in the highly unsettling process of the continue making of histories and geographies in a world continually subjected to the marginalization of its reproductive conditions of existence† (Lee, 2003, p. 79). Deregulation continues to leads to the exacerbation of structural imbalances, social polarization, as well as exaggerated fluctuations in the economy and increased fragility of local growth. Private capital has become an important component in the process of social reproduction and the distribution of space (Brenner, 2004; Lombardo, 2005; Peck Tickell, 1994). References Bebczuk, R.N. Gasparini, L.C., (2001). Globalisation and inequality: the case of Argentina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Retrieved April 14, 2005 from depeco.econo.unlp.edu.ar/doctrab/doc32.pdf Brenner, N. (2004). New state spaces: urban governance and the rescaling of statehood. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dicken, P. (2003). Global Shift. New York: Guilford. Gilbert, A. (2002). Love in the time of enhanced capital flows: reflections on the links between liberalization and informality. In A. Roy N. AlSayyad (Eds). Urban informality: transnational perspectives from the Middle East, Latin America, and South Asia (pp. 33-65). New York, NY: Lexington Books Inter-American Development Bank. (2005). Economic and social progress in Latin American 2005 report: unlocking credit – the quest for deep and stable bank lending. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. International Monetary Fund. (2004). What is the IMF? Retrieved April 9, 2005, from imf.org/external/pubs/ft/exrp/what.htm Isard, P. (2005). Globalization and the international financial system: what’s wrong and what can be done. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lee, R. (2003). The Marginalization of everywhere: emerging geographies of emerging markets. In J. Peck H.W. Yeung (Eds), Remaking the global economy (pp. 61-82). Lombardo, J.D., DiVirgilio, M., Fernndez, L. (2005). Land markets, social reproduction and configuration of urban space: a case study of five municipalities in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area. In B. Stiftel V. Watson (Eds), Dialogues in urban regional planning (pp.59-87). New York: NY: Routledge. Peck, J. Tickell, A. (1994). Searching for a new institutional fix: the after-Fordist crisis and the global-local disorder (pp. 280-315), in A. Amin (Ed), Post Fordism. Oxford: Guilford Schvarzer, J. (1998). Economic reform in Argentina – which social forces for what aims? In P.D. Oxhorn G. Ducatenzeiler (Eds), What kind of democracy? What kind of market? Latin America in the age of Neolibralism (pp. 61-88). University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. Stiglitz, J.E., (2001). Globalization and its discontents. New York, USA: W.W. Norton Company Swyngedouw, E. (1992). The mammon quest: glocalization, interspatial competition, and the monetary order: the construction of new scales (pp. 39-67), in M. Dunford G. Kafkals (Eds), Cities and regions in the new Europe. London: Belhaven. Takagi, S. (2004). The IMF and Argentina, 1991-2001. Washington: International Monetary Fund, Independent Evaluation Office. World Bank. (2004). Argentina at a glance. Retrieved April 16, 2004, from worldbank.org/cgi-bin/sendoff.cgi?page=%2Fdata%2Fcountrydata%2Faag%2Farg_aag.pdf World Bank. (2005). World development indicators 2005. Retrieved April 16, 2005, from http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2005/Cover.htm Research Papers on The World's Political System Governed By International Organizations - Economics EssayPETSTEL analysis of IndiaDefinition of Export QuotasAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Assess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfThe Project Managment Office SystemAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into Asia

The Heros Journey and Archetypes in Literature

The Heros Journey and Archetypes in Literature Carl Jung called archetypes the ancient patterns of personality that are the shared heritage of the human race. Archetypes are amazingly constant throughout all times and cultures in the collective unconscious, and youll find them in all of the most satisfying literature. An understanding of these forces is one of the most powerful elements in the storyteller’s toolbox. Understanding these ancient patterns can help you better understand literature and become a better writer yourself. Youll also be able to identify archetypes in your life experience and bring that wealth to your  work.   When you grasp the function of the archetype a character expresses, you will know his or her purpose in the story. Christopher Vogler, author of The Writers Journey: Mythic Structure, writes about how every good story reflects the total human story. In other words, the heros journey represents the universal human condition of being born into this world, growing, learning, struggling to become an individual, and dying. The next time you watch a movie, TV program, even a commercial, identify the following archetypes. I guarantee youll see some or all of them. The Heros Journey The word hero comes from a Greek root that means to protect and serve. The hero is connected with self-sacrifice. He or she is the person who transcends ego, but at first, the hero is all ego. The hero’s job is to incorporate all the separate parts of himself to become a true Self, which he then recognizes as part of the whole, Vogler says. The reader is usually invited to identify with the hero. You admire the heros qualities and want to be like him or her, but the hero also has flaws. Weaknesses, quirks, and vices make a hero more appealing. The hero also has one or more  inner conflicts. For example, he or she may struggle over the conflicts of love versus duty, trust versus suspicion, or  hope versus despair. In The Wizard of Oz  Dorothy is the storys hero, a girl trying to find her place in the world. The Job of the Herald Heralds issue challenges and announce the coming of significant change. Something changes the hero’s situation, and nothing is the same ever again. The herald often delivers the Call to Adventure, sometimes in the form of a letter, a phone call, an accident. Heralds provide the important psychological function of announcing the need for change, Vogler says. Miss Gulch, at the beginning of the film version of The Wizard of Oz, makes a visit to Dorothys house to complain that Toto is trouble. Toto is taken away, and the adventure begins. The Purpose of the Mentor Mentors provide heroes with motivation, inspiration, guidance, training, and gifts for the journey. Their gifts often come in the form of information or gadgets that come in handy later. Mentors seem inspired by divine wisdom; they are the voice of a god. They stand for the hero’s highest aspirations, Vogler says. The gift or help given by the mentor should be earned by learning, sacrifice, or commitment. Yoda is a classic mentor. So is Q from the James Bond series. Glinda, the Good Witch, is Dorothys mentor in The Wizard of Oz. Overcoming the Threshold Guardian At each gateway on the journey, there are powerful guardians placed to keep the unworthy from entering. If properly understood, these guardians can be overcome, bypassed, or turned into allies. These characters are not the journeys main villain  but are often lieutenants of the villain. They are the naysayers, doorkeepers, bouncers, bodyguards, and gunslingers, according to Vogler. On a deeper psychological level, threshold guardians represent our internal demons. Their function is not necessarily to stop the hero but to test if he or she is really determined to accept the challenge of change. Heroes learn to recognize resistance as a source of strength. Threshold Guardians are not to be defeated  but incorporated into the self. The message: those who are put off by outward appearances cannot enter the Special World, but those who can see past surface impressions to the inner reality are welcome, according to Vogler. The Doorman at the Emerald City, who attempts to stop Dorothy and her friends from seeing the wizard, is one threshold guardian. Another is the group of flying monkeys who attack the group. Finally, the Winkie Guards are literal threshold guardians who are enslaved by the Wicked Witch. Meeting Ourselves in Shapeshifters Shapeshifters express the energy of the animus (the male element in the female consciousness) and anima (the female element in the male consciousness). Vogler says we often recognize a resemblance of our own anima or animus in a person, project the full image onto him or her, enter a relationship with this ideal fantasy, and commence trying to force the partner to match our projection. The shapeshifter is a catalyst for change, a symbol of the psychological urge to transform. The role serves the dramatic function of bringing doubt and suspense into a story. It is a mask that may be worn by any character in the story, and is often expressed by a character whose loyalty and true nature are always in question, Vogler says. Think Scarecrow, Tin Man, Lion. Confronting the Shadow The shadow represents the energy of the dark side, the unexpressed, unrealized, or rejected aspects of something. The negative face of the shadow is the villain, antagonist, or enemy. It may also be an ally who is after the same goal but who disagrees with the hero’s tactics. Vogler says the function of the shadow is to challenge the hero and give her a worthy opponent in the struggle. Femmes  Fatale  are lovers who shift shapes to such a degree they become the shadow. The best shadows have some admirable quality that humanizes them. Most shadows do not see themselves as villains, but merely as heroes of their own myths. Internal shadows may be deeply repressed parts of the hero, according to Vogler. External shadows must be destroyed by the hero or redeemed and turned into a positive force. Shadows may also represent unexplored potentials, such as affection, creativity, or psychic ability that goes unexpressed. The Wicked Witch is the obvious shadow in the Wizard of Oz. Changes Brought About By the Trickster The trickster embodies the energies of mischief and the desire for change. He cuts big egos down to size and brings heroes and readers down to earth, Vogler says. He brings change by drawing attention to the imbalance or absurdity of a stagnant situation and often provokes laughter. Tricksters are catalyst characters who affect the lives of others but are unchanged themselves. The Wizard himself is both a shapeshifter and a trickster.

Sustainability in construction starts at the design stage of a Essay

Sustainability in construction starts at the design stage of a project. Identify and explain the main constituents of sustainabl - Essay Example Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..8 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9 Appendix†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦10 1. Introduction Sustainability is highly involved in the construction industry. Still, the use of the rules of sustainability in the construction projects has been a rather recent trend, if taking into consideration the effects of construction on the environment (Luff 2008). In addition, not all countries set sustainability as a term for accepting plans related to con struction projects (Luff 2008). UK is one of the countries that first recognized the value of sustainability in construction. It should be noted that the promotion of sustainability in construction has a series of implications, meaning especially the cost involved and the availability of expertise professionals for developing construction projects based on sustainability. Current paper focuses on a particular aspect of sustainability, as related to construction: the sustainable design and its constituents. The literature published in regard to this subject has been reviewed in explore the particular issue. It is revealed that sustainable design is a complex and demanding process which can be completed successfully only if it is appropriately supported in all its phases. 2. Sustainability design in construction 2.1 Key issues of sustainability in construction projects Sustainability, as part of a construction project, is commonly related to certain issues, such as ‘green buildi ng, energy and climate’ (Luff 2008, p.152). However, such approach is not correct. Sustainability could be effectively promoted through construction only if a series of additional issues would be addressed: issues such as ‘health, economics and transport’ (Luff 2008, p.152) should be considered as indispensable elements of sustainability, as the term is used in all sectors, not just in construction. Through a similar approach, the involvement of sustainability in construction has been related to the management of issues such as ‘the disposal of waste material used in construction projects and the use of environmental-friendly engineering systems’ (CERF 1996, p.95). The level at which sustainability will be involved in a construction project depends on the willingness of the project’s designer to incorporate sustainability in the project’s plan and the availability of resources required (CERF 1996). In order to understand the role of sus tainability in construction, it would be necessary to refer to the characteristics of sustainability in general. In the literature, sustainability has been defined as ‘the management of natural resource base†¦. and continued satisfaction of human needs for the present and future generations’ (Vogt et al. 2012, p.1). Dresner (2008) supports that sustainability should be defined as ‘the effort for securing the interests of future generations without setting in risk the interests of current generations’ (Dresner 2008, p.70). According to Morris and Pinto (2010) when being related to a construction project, sustainability refers to the various ‘issues from construction and throughout the life cycle of the building/ facility involved’ (Morris and Pinto 2010, p.124). In its own, sustainability is a term quite wide, incorporating issues related to ‘

In the Cloud Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

In the Cloud - Essay Example A number of options are available for individual use such as Dropbox, which is until to date the best cloud storage option at no charge available. Another option is the windows Skydrive, which offers a great option for people with lot of small files to share (Kunal, 2010). Both options are worth using as they provide a variety of features that suit individual needs. Cloud computing has gained popularity so easily amongst public, private and hybrid users due to its capabilities and efficiency it offers. Compared to traditional databases, cloud computing has proved more capabilities and efficiency, hence rapid growth and acceptance. Cloud focus is to maximize the effectiveness of shared resources. It saves money and time making business more responsive to the needs of clients. There is a large variety of options to access internet like Ipads, mobile phones, and Netbooks hence greater efficiency and improved service to customers (Kunal, 2010). Cloud software is cheap compared to traditional database software. Among other benefits associated with cloud and storage are; ease in collaboration, universal access, pooling of resources and energy efficiency. With cloud computing, doing business becomes easier for both managers and employees since clients accounts are accessible from anywhere (Kunal,

The Prevention Of Computer Viruses Computer Science Essay

The Prevention Of Computer Viruses Computer Science Essay What is a computer virus? A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself[1] and infect a computer. The term virus is also commonly but erroneously used to refer to other types of malware, including but not limited to adware and spyware programs that do not have the reproductive ability. A true virus can spread from one computer to another (in some form of executable code) when its host is taken to the target computer; for instance because a user sent it over a network or the Internet, or carried it on a removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, DVD, or USB drive. How are viruses transmitted can be transmitted person to individual by bodily fluids like HIV. Viruses approaching the common cold can be transported through the upper air we breathe. Viruses can also be transferred from your pets to you. Fortunately our body has an immunodefense workings that is intricately designed to row these pathogens. How do you prevent viruses? List the softwareà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s name. The internet is an amazing place that allows each and every one of us easy access to a wide variety of resources. Unfortunately, there is an increasing amount of viruses, worms, spyware and spam that can easily infect your computer. Your computer in fact may already be infected and you may not even know it. If your computer is unusually slow or crashes periodically, it may be infected. In fact, if you do not address the problem with this computer it may in fact infect other computers on your network. The result of a virus or worm attack can include an inability to access the internet, missing icons on your desktop, missing files and many other potential problems. There are ways, however, that you can fight back. Of course before making any changes to your computer, it is always a good idea to make a backup. FIGHT BACK 1. Run Microsoft Windows Update often. With new viruses and worms constantly being created, it is important to keep the Microsoft Windows operating system up to date. Go to http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com and follow the instructions on screen. By installing the critical updates found on the Windows Update website, you are greatly reducing the chances of your computer from becoming infected. 2. Update the virus pattern of your Anti-Virus software frequently. Almost all Anti-Virus software programs update automatically, but you will want to check to make sure that this process is taking place. If a new virus is introduced and your pattern file is out of date, you will not be adequately protected against this new threat. I highly recommend the use of Trend Micro PC-Cillin. Unlike other antivirus software programs, it does not tap your system resources by taking up a lot of memory. It also works in a very transparent fashion with continuous pattern updates. 3. Remove Spyware and Adware. When you visit websites or install new software, you may be inadvertently installing Spyware and Adware onto your computer. Spyware and Adware allows third parties to: (a) monitor the use of your computer over the internet and (b) market specific products to you on the internet based upon the use of your computer. Go to http://www.download.com in order to download and install: (1) Ad-aware and (2) Spybot Search Destroy. Properly updated, both of these programs will remove all known Spyware and Adware. 4. Prevent Spam. A large number of worms and viruses are distributed through spam email. The first step in preventing spam is to not post your email address on a website. If you need to provide a means for contacting you via email, you will want to create a submission form that does not display your MAILTO in the code/page source of your webpage. You may need to contact a web designer in order to properly implement this process into your website. Another method is to use the Master Spambot Buster which works just like a MAILTO link but without displaying your email address in the code for bots to pick up. In addition, you should always use Private Registration when registering a domain name for a website. If you go to http://www.netsol.com and do a WHOIS on your website, you do not want to see your email address publicly displayed in your domain record. Automated programs called robots regularly crawl websites such as this looking to pick up email addresses for use by companies that spam. If robots on the internet have already picked up your email address, you will of course want to use some form of spam prevention. Many web based mail programs already allow you the ability to prevent spam. However, many mail clients on business networks do not have this functionality. There are a variety of products in the marketplace to address this problem, but one of the most popular is http://www.spamarrest.com. By using Spamarrest.com, you manage who you allow or do not allow to receive email from. When someone sends you an email for the first time, they must verify that they sent you an email. If they do not, the email is placed in your unverified folder on Spamarrest.coms web servers. All blocked mail is then placed in Spamarrest.coms spam folder. Meanwhile all approved mail is sent as it normally would directly to your computers Inbox. CONSULT A PROFESSIONAL Although the software described here is easily used, different hardware and software configurations can lead to unexpected results that may damage your computer. If you are experiencing difficulties with viruses, worms, spyware or spam, you may want to consult a professional. How do you know that your computer is infected by a virus? If you suspect or confirm that your computer is infected with a computer virus, obtain the current antivirus software. The following are some primary indicators that a computer may be infected: The computer runs slower than usual. The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently. The computer crashes, and then it restarts every few minutes. The computer restarts on its own. Additionally, the computer does not run as usual. Applications on the computer do not work correctly. Disks or disk drives are inaccessible. You cannot print items correctly. You see unusual error messages. You see distorted menus and dialog boxes. There is a double extension on an attachment that you recently opened, such as a .jpg, .vbs, .gif, or .exe. extension. An antivirus program is disabled for no reason. Additionally, the antivirus program cannot be restarted. An antivirus program cannot be installed on the computer, or the antivirus program will not run. New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put there, or the icons are not associated with any recently installed programs. Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly. A program disappears from the computer even though you did not intentionally remove the program Why virus-scanning software needs to be updated regularly ? computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself[1] and infect a computer. The term virus is also commonly but erroneously used to refer to other types of malware, including but not limited to adware and spyware programs that do not have the reproductive ability. A true virus can spread from one computer to another (in some form of executable code) when its host is taken to the target computer; for instance because a user sent it over a network or the Internet, or carried it on a removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, DVD, or USB drive.[2] Viruses can increase their chances of spreading to other computers by infecting files on a network file system or a file system that is accessed by another computer.[3][4] As stated above, the term computer virus is sometimes used as a catch-all phrase to include all types of malware, even those that do not have the reproductive ability. Malware includes computer viruses, computer worms, Trojan horses, most rootkits, spyware, dishonest adware and other malicious and unwanted software, including true viruses. Viruses are sometimes confused with worms and Trojan horses, which are technically different. A worm can exploit security vulnerabilities to spread itself automatically to other computers through networks, while a Trojan horse is a program that appears harmless but hides malicious functions. Worms and Trojan horses, like viruses, may harm a computer systems data or performance. Some viruses and other malware have symptoms noticeable to the computer user, but many are surreptitious or simply do nothing to call attention to themselves. Some viruses do nothing beyond reproducing themselves. The Academic Integrity and Plagiarism Policy: You should be ready to prove the authenticity of your work. If any form of plagiarism/reproduction of answers/work discovered, you will be awarded zero mark. Late submission of the assignment: If any late submission of your work, mark will be reduced. Your are expected to cover the following outcomes Outcome 4. You are expected to practice the skills that are related to the following graduate attribute: Recognize the importance of lifelong learning and are committed to self development Declaration by student (Hand written) TO MY LECTURER Mr. Sheik Mohammed I CERTIFY THAT ALL OF THIS WORK IS: (a) DONE BY MYSELF (b) PRINTED BY MYSELF Students signatureMahmood Khalfan Ali.. Submit ion Date: ..22j1047

Nuclear terrorism

The most recent threat of Nuclear attack attempted on the United States has come from North Korea, as such the following essay will delve into North Korea’s investment in nuclear terrorism and the plan of action the United States has against such action.   There are several links that associate North Korea to different factions of terrorism.   The following paper will give detailed examples of North Korea’s interaction and support of each group.   The support of terrorism has many forms such as weapons or money and North Korea’s handing over of monetary funds and weapons will also be documented in this essay.   The resources necessary for terrorism to exist has a partner in government and North Korea is just such a partner. The following paper will not only address the fact of terrorism affiliation between North Korea and reputed terrorist groups and countries but also that North Korea has their own terrorist group.   This fact can be found in North Korea’s treatment toward South Korea and reported assassination attempts of their presidents on several occasions.   The terrorist affiliation North Korea harbors is one that involves not only promoting terrorism through trade with notable terrorist groups but also their own participation in Afghanistan terrorist camps and the trading of weapons technologies with such groups (Graham 20-21). North Korea is a country with a specific dichotomy between public relations.   These relations deal mainly with money.   The reason North Korea is reported to be trading with terrorists is that their funding aids in the economic growth of their country.   The support that North Korea gives to terrorist is rewarded with monetary funds from such countries as Japan, Iran, and Iraq.   This paper will organize specific examples of each country and it’s trading policy with North Korea (what items it trades for what price etc.).   The essay will also focus on how North Korea opens up trade routes covertly using bribes and coercion. The year 2000 saw the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the United States government went through a series of terrorism talks and the future state of terrorism as well as cooperation of North Korea’s government in several documented terrorism actions.   Such actions include the 1970 hijacking of a Japanese plane bound for North Korea and the subsequent sheltering of the Japanese Communist League-Red Army Faction members or hijackers, or the safe haven North Korea provided to the terrorist who were involved in the hijack.   Also, DPRK has been suspected of selling weapons to the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, as specified by the Philippine government. The monetary transaction was made possible through Middle East connections (Terrorism Files, 2002).   North Korea has been on the US terrorism list sin 1988 and continues to remain on that list because of its uncooperative procedures for information on terrorist after the September 11 attacks, as Secretary of State John Bolton stated, â€Å"’North Korea has a dedicated, national-level effort to achieve a biological weapons capacity and has developed and produced, and may have weaponized, biological weapons agents. Despite the fact that its citizens are starving,† said Mr. Bolton, â€Å"the leadership in Pyongyang has spent large sums of money to acquire the resources, including a biotechnology infrastructure, capable of producing infectious agents, toxins, and other crude biological weapons. It has a variety of means at its disposal for delivering these deadly weapons.’† (North Korea and Terrorism 2002). Another terrorism threat that North Korea poses and has been linked with is nuclear terror.   In this respect according to Pakistan and US sources (as well as Libyan) this is the current threat of North Korea:   they have been supposedly training Arab terrorists for at minimum ten years at the Kim Jung-il Political and Military University.   North Korea is also linked with Osama bin Laden in arms dealing, as Triplett (2004) states in North Korea and Nuclear Terror, of the existing relationship between North Korea and bin Laden, â€Å"This was discovered in 2000 when bin Laden financed a shipment of North Korean conventional arms to a Philippine Islamic terrorist group†. North Korean nuclear weapons were also being used as tests by Pakistan (in 1998).   Scientists at the Los Alamos National Laboratory suspect that these tests were a conglomeration between Pakistan and North Korea in nuclear testing.   Such joint ventures are not new for North Korea and their connection with terrorism.   Nuclear weapons are just the forefront of terror that North Korea has presented to the world. North Korea, since their cover-up in 1970 of the safe haven they provided to the airplane hijackers, have been affiliated with several terrorist groups as Triplett further states, â€Å"Recently a Japanese newspaper, citing military sources, reported Iranian military figures were seen at North Korea nuclear facilities. This leads allied intelligence to suspect the Iranians of trying to move their nuclear weapons program to North Korea, beyond the range of Israeli F-16 fighter-bombers†. The Pakistan, and North Korean conglomeration of trading weapons is a definite terrorism group.   The weapon testing near the Afghan border in 1998 was reported to have been the testing of Korean made missiles.   Another link between Pakistan and North Korea can be found with Major General (retired) Saltan Habib, who was responsible for covert acquisitions of nuclear technologies while presiding as the defense attachà © of Pakistan in Moscow, was posted as the ambassador to North Korea to ‘oversee the clandestine nuclear and missile cooperation between North Korea and Pakistan’ (Raman 2002). As the ambassador, Habib organized the covert shipment of missiles from North Korea to Pakistan.   Not only did Habib coordinate this shipment but he also was reported to have exchanged technology from North Korea to Pakistan on weapons technologies especially those dealing with missiles and nuclear devices as Raman states, â€Å"†¦the training of Pakistani experts in the missile production and testing facilities of North Korea and the training of North Korean scientists in the nuclear establishments of Pakistan through Captain (retired) Shafquat Cheema, third secretary and acting head of mission in the Pakistani embassy in North Korea from 1992 to 1996†. Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) is one in which North Korea has strong ties.   Prior to Habib’s position with North Korea it was filled by Major General Shujjat from the Baluch Regiment.   General Shujjat was not only working for the embitterment of North Korea but clandestine actions he performed were favoring ISI for five consecutive years as Raman states, â€Å"On Captain Cheema's return to headquarters in 1996, the ISI discovered that in addition to acting as the liaison officer of the ISI with the nuclear and missile establishments in North Korea, he was also earning money from the Iranian and the Iraqi intelligence by helping them in their clandestine nuclear and missile technology and material procurement not only from North Korea, but also from Russia and the CARs†. The limits of North Korea’s involvement in terror seem boundless.   Not only have they delivered ballistic missiles to Pakistan but also they are using very covert methods by which to trade.   The beginning of 2002 was witness to mass movements of nuclear weapons across the Karakoram Highway.   These weapons were being transported from China to Pakistan with the envoy containing spare parts and other assortments.   The transportation of this shipment however has ties with North Korea because China may have accepted this movement from Pakistan only in regards to North Korea’s wishes (Raman). North Korea, Iran, and Iraq are infamously known as the Axis of Evil, because of their terrorist ties and promotion of illegal arms dealing.   North Korea has managed to become well versed in terrorism through biological, chemical, and nuclear means.   In 1988 North Korea or DPRK as well as Kim Jong-il were suspected (and this probability is almost certain) of committing to assassinate South Korean president Chun in Rangoon (or Yangun as it is known today). The assassination was to take place by strategically placing bombs atop the Martyr’s Masoleum (in dedication to Aung San the founder of independent Burma).   Although president Chun was delayed in traffic and did not succumb to the bombings, â€Å"The huge blast ripped through the crowd below, killing 21 people and wounding 46. Among the dead were the Korean foreign minister, Lee Bum Suk, the economic planning minister and deputy prime minister, Suh Suk Joo, and the Minister for Commerce and Industry, Kim Dong Whie. The rest of those killed were presidential advisers, journalists, and security officials, most of them South Korean† (Wikipedia Online Encyclopedia). In finding evidence to support North Korea has having terrorist ties, it is presumably difficult.   The suspects who were responsible for the Rangoon bombings committed suicide by detonating hand grenades.   Such suspects are common in assisination attempts and thus true evidence is difficult to come by in linking North Korea directly with terrorism in some cases.   However, the 1970 safehaven as well as arms dealing that Philippine officials attest to are some of the supporting materials that accumalte against North Korea (Graham 80-85). In lieu of specific evidence to support terrorism affilitations from North Korea president Kim Jong-il admitted to the United States in 2000 that DPRK had willfully exported missiles abroad.   These missiles are traded to Syria and Iran in exchange for monetary compensation.   While Syria was reportedly a main buyer of missiles, Iran was said to be a primary buyer of not only ballistic missiles but technology as well (Wagner 2000).   The specific terrorism that exists in North Korea trading missiles to such countries exists in those countries’ intent for such exported ‘goods’.   In order for North Korea to stop association and trading of missiles, as Wagner states of the conference between the United States and North Korea held in July-August of 2000, Einhorn characterized the talks as â€Å"very useful† and said that he hopes to meet again with the North Koreans in the near future. However, on July 12, Jang â€Å"clarified† that North Korea would only continue the talks if the United States compensated Pyongyang â€Å"for the political and economic losses to be incurred in case we suspend our missile program.† During the meeting, the United States had once again rejected North Korea's long-standing demand for $1 billion per year in return for the cessation of missile exports. â€Å"North Korea should not be receiving cash compensation for stopping what it shouldn't be doing in the first place,† Einhorn said. This compensation is coercion and is a type of terrorism in and of itself.   North Korea should not be given compensation pay for ending its affilitation with terrorism simply because their economy would suffer slightly from the lose of funds selling missiles etc. had given the DPRK. North Korea has remained in close contact with different terrorist groups.   The Japanese Red Army who were given safehaven in 1970 after the plane hijacking are coherts of Middle Eastern terrorists and in this connection lies the bridge by which North Korea exports weapons (Fulford 2001).   As said prior Pakistan has a standing trade relationship with North Korea as missile buyers. The funding for such North Korean weapons development as Fulford states, â€Å"However, cutting off one of ruler Kim Jong Il's main sources of finance–illegal activities in Japan–might prove easier. North Korea's government has been manufacturing large quantities of heroin, amphetamines, weapons and counterfeit U.S. dollars to finance its weapons development programs. It sells them either through criminal gangs in Japan or via Russia and China to the U.S. and Europe, the Korea experts say.† Pakistan is also a main supporter of the Afghanistan Taliban regime and terror weapons that are used by Taliban are subsequently provided by North Korea (Fulford). Other avenues by which North Korea finds funding for weapons is through Japan’s Liberal Democratic Party.   The Party solicits succor toward North Korea in exchange for bribes as Fulford further states, â€Å"†¦when Japan gave 500,000 tons of rice aid to North Korea last year, politicians received kickbacks from North Korea, Lee says. â€Å"I was with a North Korean official as he phoned a Japanese member of parliament and told him a shipment of free fish had been sent to a company he owns,† he says.† This bribe system works by committing North Korean businessmen, who reside in Japan, to a loan.   This loan, or lend, is given by a bank and is paid back directly to North Korea and Japan.   Thus, the money cannot easily be traced.   Public money is being used to generate a working arms dealing relationship between North Korea and Japan. Public money is not the only money being used in corrupt manners:   The Japanese government aided North Korea’s atomic weapon development through its Fuji bank.   Fuji bank is one of the largest banks in the world and its involvement in the deal between North Korea and Japan was a catalyst in North Korean weapons building and trading.   Essentially Fuji paid approximately $350 million to a myriad of North Korean businesses and organizations who were prospering in Japan.   This money was given in exchange for debt collection services (Graham 61-63). The funding for weapons development in North Korea as it is funded by Japan and public money is the key component of rising terrorism at a global scale.   Due to North Korea’s association with several aforementioned terrorists groups, global terror does exist.   North Korea’s trade of missiles to different terrorist organizations promotes multilateral trade in a negative fashion because what North Korea is truly promoting is terrorism through trade. There also exist unofficial reports of North Korea terrorist involvement.   It has been established that North Korea has dealt ballistic missiles to countries: It gained the raw materials for the construction of these missiles from such countries as China.   These missiles are capable of delivering mass destruction in the form of biological as well as chemical warfare.   In late 2001 P’yongyang continued a type of global scavenger hunt for technologies dealing with the making of nuclear weapons. The procurement of the necessary plutonium for at least one nuclear weapon has set the world on edge.   As the Unclassified Congress Report (2001) states, â€Å"Spent fuel rods canned in accordance with the 1994 Agreed Framework contain enough plutonium for several more weapons.†Ã‚   Along this train of potential arms dealings P’yongyang laid the path to trade with Russia by signing the Defense Industry Cooperation Agreement. Among the trading partners that North Korea has established ties with include Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, Angola, Burma, Cuba, Libya, and Syria.   Through trade with these countries North Korea is able to consistently manage its immense military operation (14% of its economic gross goes to the military despite calling in international aid to its starving people).   The trading that continues between the aforementioned countries and North Korea involves ‘arms, chemical and biological weapons materials, and even ballistic missile technology–in clear violation of the Missile Technology Control Regime. Libya, for example, recently bought 50 Rodong-1 missiles from North Korea with a range of 1,000 kilometers’ (Hwang, 2001). Among the trading countries that North Korea has ties and the materials thar are reportedly being traded, North Korea has also been invovled with overtly selling weapons to various terrorist groups such as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the United Wa State Army.   The United Wa State Army is a drug affiliated Burma terrorist group residing in the golden triangle.   The golden triangle is the area between Thailand, Laos, and Burma. Not only is North Korea coordinating trading efforts with these terrorist groups but North Korea also has been training in Afghanistan terrorist camps (Hwang).   The Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, John E. McLaughlin stated of North Korean involvement of terrorism, â€Å"North Korea's challenge to regional and global security is magnified by two factors†¦first, the North's pursuit of weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles, and two, its readiness–and eagerness–to become missile salesman to the world† (Hwang). Not only is North Korea associated and in league with terrorist groups by harboring hijackers and participating in terrorist camps but North Korea is a terrorist.   In 1987 North Korean agents bombed a South Korean airplane.   North Korea has continuously be involved with terrorist attacks on South Korea a reported 300 instances.   North Korea has participated in covert assassination attempts of South Korean presidents and has traversed passed South Korean borders 15 separate times (Hwang). Not simply has North Korea been fully participatory in these incidences but as Hwang further states, â€Å"In one of the most blatant, 26 North Korean commandos in a submarine landed off the South Korean coast in September 1996; they, along with 17 South Koreans, were killed in the ensuing manhunt. Their mission is believed to have been to assassinate South Korean dignitaries†.   Therefore, North Korea guilty of fully participating in aiding terrorists through weapons and technologies and they are also delving into the leagues of terrorism by their chronic attack on South Korea (Graham 43-44). Along the lines of defining North Korea as having terrorist groups within its borders who are North Korean Hwang states that North Korea has kidnapped an unprecedented 3,600 Korean citizens since the year 1953.   In this fact there exists relevant material to consider North Korea as having terrorist intentions and actions.   Not only has North Korea abducted Koreans but reportedly also foreigners, of which ten Japanese foreigners are the most noted. In conclusion, North Korea is not only a country who supports terrorism through trade of weapons and technology but it is also a country which participates in terrorism through assassinations, and kidnappings.   North Korea then exists as a country spurned by monetary gain and by lines of distinction between trading partners and the uses those countries may have for nuclear weapons. Although the above pages attest to the development of North Korea and its invovlement with terrorism it must also be noted that the United States with the advocacy of the United Nations, has established an administration of foreign policy which will attribute to the goals of nuclear disarmament. Work Cited Allison, Graham.   (2005).   Nuclear Terrorism, The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe.   Owl Books, New York. Editorial.   North Korea and Terrorism.   2002.   (Online).   Available:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.ibb.gov/editorials/09924.htm Fulford, Benjamin.   North Korea, Another Outcropping of Terrorism.   Forbes.   September 2001. (Online).   Available:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   www2.gol.com/users/coynerhm/north_korea_another_outcropping_of_terrorism.htm Hwang, Balbina.   North Korea Deserves to Remain on US List of Sponsors of Terrorism. Asia and the Pacific.   November 2001.   (Online).   Available:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/BG1503.cfm Raman, B.   Pakistan and the North Korea Connection.   Asia Times, October 2002.   (Online). Available:   http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DJ22Df01.html. Terrorism Files.   State-Sponsored Terrorism North Korea.   2002.   (Online).   Available:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.terrorismfiles.org/countries/north_korea.html Triplett, William C.   North Korea and Nuclear Terror.   The Washington Times.   2004.(Online).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Available:http://www.washingtontimes.com/commentary/20040406-101023-7315r.htm Wikipedia Online Encyclopedia.   Rangoon Bombing.   (Online).   Available:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangoon_bombing  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unclassified Congress Report.   2001.   (Online).   Available:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   https://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/721_reports/jan_jun2001.htm#5 Wagner, Alexander.   US-North Korea Terrorism Talks Resume; North Korea Admits to Exporting Rocket Technology.   Arms Control Association, September 2000. (Online).   Available:   http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2000_09/nkoreasept00.asp      

What Is Operant Conditioning Definition and Examples

Operant conditioning occurs when an association is made between a particular behavior and a consequence for that behavior. This association is built upon the use of reinforcement and/or punishment to encourage or discourage behavior. Operant conditioning was first defined and studied by behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner, who conducted several well-known operant conditioning experiments with animal subjects. Key Takeaways: Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is the process of learning through reinforcement and punishment. In operant conditioning, behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the consequences of that behavior. Operant conditioning was defined and studied by behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner. Origins B.F. Skinner was a behaviorist, which means he believed that psychology should be limited to the study of observable behaviors. While other behaviorists, like John B. Watson, focused on classical conditioning, Skinner was more interested in the learning that happened through operant conditioning. He observed that in classical conditioning responses tend to be triggered by innate reflexes that occur automatically. He called this kind of behavior respondent. He distinguished respondent behavior from operant behavior. Operant behavior was the term Skinner used to describe a behavior that is reinforced by the consequences that follow it. Those consequences play an important role in whether or not a behavior is performed again. Skinner’s ideas were based on Edward Thorndike’s law of effect, which stated that behavior that elicits positive consequences will probably be repeated, while behavior that elicits negative consequences will probably not be repeated. Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement into Thorndike’s ideas, specifying that behavior that is reinforced will probably be repeated (or strengthened). To study operant conditioning, Skinner conducted experiments using a â€Å"Skinner Box,† a small box that had a lever at one end that would provide food or water when pressed. An animal, like a pigeon or rat, was placed in the box where it was free to move around. Eventually the animal would press the lever and be rewarded. Skinner found that this process resulted in the animal pressing the lever more frequently. Skinner would measure learning by tracking the rate of the animal’s responses when those responses were reinforced. Reinforcement and Punishment Through his experiments, Skinner identified the different kinds of reinforcement and punishment that encourage or discourage behavior. Reinforcement Reinforcement that closely follows a behavior will encourage and strengthen that behavior. There are two types of reinforcement: Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in a favorable outcome, e.g. a dog receiving a treat after obeying a command, or a student receiving a compliment from the teacher after behaving well in class. These techniques increase the likelihood that the individual will repeat the desired behavior in order to receive the reward again.Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in the removal of an unfavorable experience, e.g. an experimenter ceasing to give a monkey electric shocks when the monkey presses a certain lever. In this case, the lever-pressing behavior is reinforced because the monkey will want to remove the unfavorable electric shocks again. In addition, Skinner identified two different kinds of reinforcers. Primary reinforcers naturally reinforce behavior because they are innately desirable, e.g. food.Conditioned reinforcers reinforce behavior not because they are innately desirable, but because we learn to associate them with primary reinforcers. For example, Paper money is not innately desirable, but it can be used to acquire innately desirable goods, such as food and shelter. Punishment Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. When punishment follows a behavior, it discourages and weakens that behavior. There are two kinds of punishment. Positive punishment (or punishment by application) occurs when a behavior is followed by an unfavorable outcome, e.g. a parent spanking a child after the child uses a curse word.Negative punishment (or punishment by removal) occurs when a behavior leads to the removal of something favorable, e.g. a parent who denies a child their weekly allowance because the child has misbehaved. Although punishment is still widely used, Skinner and many other researchers found that punishment is not always effective. Punishment can suppress a behavior for a time, but the undesired behavior tends to come back in the long run. Punishment can also have unwanted side effects. For example, a child who is punished by a teacher may become uncertain and fearful because they don’t know exactly what to do to avoid future punishments. Instead of punishment, Skinner and others suggested reinforcing desired behaviors and ignoring unwanted behaviors. Reinforcement tells an individual what behavior is desired, while punishment only tells the individual what behavior isn’t desired. Behavior Shaping Operant conditioning can lead to increasingly complex behaviors through shaping, also referred to as the â€Å"method of approximations.† Shaping happens in a step-by-step fashion as each part of a more intricate behavior is reinforced. Shaping starts by reinforcing the first part of the behavior. Once that piece of the behavior is mastered, reinforcement only happens when the second part of the behavior occurs. This pattern of reinforcement is continued until the entire behavior is mastered. For example, when a child is taught to swim, she may initially be praised just for getting in the water. She is praised again when she learns to kick, and again when she learns specific arm strokes. Finally, she is praised for propelling herself through the water by performing a specific stroke and kicking at the same time. Through this process, an entire behavior has been shaped.   Schedules of Reinforcement In the real world, behavior is not constantly reinforced. Skinner found that the frequency of reinforcement can impact how quickly and how successfully one learns a new behavior. He specified several reinforcement schedules, each with different timing and frequencies. Continuous reinforcement occurs when a particular response follows each and every performance of a given behavior. Learning happens rapidly with continuous reinforcement. However, if reinforcement is stopped, the behavior will quickly decline and ultimately stop altogether, which is referred to as extinction.Fixed-ratio schedules reward behavior after a specified number of responses. For example, a child may get a star after every fifth chore they complete. On this schedule, the response rate slows right after the reward is delivered.Variable-ratio schedules vary the number of behaviors required to get a reward. This schedule leads to a high rate of responses and is also hard to extinguish because its variability maintains the behavior. Slot machines use this kind of reinforcement schedule.Fixed-interval schedules provide a reward after a specific amount of time passes. Getting paid by the hour is one example of this kind of reinforcement schedule. Much like the fixed-ratio schedule, the response rate increases as the reward approaches but slows down right after the reward is received.Variable-interval schedules vary the amount of time between rewards. For example, a child who receives an allowance at various times during the week as long as they’ve exhibited some positive behaviors is on a variable-interval schedule. The child will continue to exhibit positive behavior in anticipation of eventually receiving their allowance. Examples of Operant Conditioning If you’ve ever trained a pet or taught a child, you have likely used operant conditioning in your own life. Operant conditioning is still frequently used in various real-world circumstances, including in the classroom and in therapeutic settings. For example, a teacher might reinforce students doing their homework regularly by periodically giving pop quizzes that ask questions similar to recent homework assignments. Also, if a child throws a temper tantrum to get attention, the parent can ignore the behavior and then acknowledge the child again once the tantrum has ended. Operant conditioning is also used in behavior modification, an approach to the treatment of numerous issues in adults and children, including phobias, anxiety, bedwetting, and many others. One way behavior modification can be implemented is through a token economy, in which desired behaviors are reinforced by tokens in the form of digital badges, buttons, chips, stickers, or other objects. Eventually these tokens can be exchanged for real rewards. Critiques While operant conditioning can explain many behaviors and is still widely used, there are several criticisms of the process. First, operant conditioning is accused of being an incomplete explanation for learning because it neglects the role of biological and cognitive elements. In addition, operant conditioning is reliant upon an authority figure to reinforce behavior and ignores the role of curiosity and an individuals ability to make his or her own discoveries. Critics object to operant conditionings emphasis on controlling and manipulating behavior, arguing that they can lead to authoritarian practices. Skinner believed that environments naturally control behavior, however, and that people can choose to use that knowledge for good or ill. Finally, because Skinner’s observations about operant conditioning relied on experiments with animals, he is criticized for extrapolating from his animal studies to make predictions about human behavior. Some psychologists believe this kind of generalization is flawed because humans and non-human animals are physically and cognitively different. Sources Cherry, Kendra. â€Å"What is Operant Conditioning and How Does it Work?† Verywell Mind, 2 October 2018. https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.Goldman, Jason G. â€Å"What is Operant Conditioning? (And How Does It Explain Driving Dogs?)† Scientific American, 13 December 2012. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtful-animal/what-is-operant-conditioning-and-how-does-it-explain-driving-dogs/McLeod, Saul. â€Å"Skinner – Operant Conditioning.† Simply Psychology, 21 January 2018. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html#class